Epistemology (the study of what and how we come to know) is discussed in multiple chapters in this section. Distinguish epistemology from instructional methods or theories. What are the differences between theories, methods, or models of learning and epistemologies or underlying beliefs about ways of knowing?

Epistemology:   A branch of philosophy that investigates the origin, nature, methods, and limits of human knowledge.  (Online)

Behavioral Learning Theory	Learning can be understood, explained, and predicted entirely on the basis of observable events namely, the behavior of the learner along with its environmental experiences and consequences.  Experiences refer to the clues occurring in the environment that signal the suitability of a given behavior.   In other words, learning is an observable change in behavior.  Behaviorist also in feedback.
Cognitive Information Processing Theory	Information processing theory regards the environment as playing an important role in learning.  The theory is based on the idea that students will process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to event. According to the standard information-processing model for mental development, the mind includes attention instruments for bringing information in, working memory for actively processing information, and long term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future.
Gagne’s Theory of Instruction	A main belief in Gagne's theory is that different kinds of learning outcomes have different internal and external conditions that support them. The external conditions are things that the teacher or instructional designer assembles during instruction. The internal conditions are talents and competences that the learner has already mastered.  Gagne introduced nine events of instruction… Gaining attention: To ensure reception of coming instruction, the teacher gives the learners a stimulus. Before the learners can start to process any new information, the instructor must gain the attention of the learners. This might entail using abrupt changes in the instruction. Informing learners of objectives: The teacher tells the learner what they will be able to do because of the instruction. The teacher communicates the desired outcome to the group. Stimulating recall of prior learning: The teacher asks for recall of existing significant knowledge. Presenting the stimulus: The teacher gives emphasis to distinctive features. Providing learning guidance: The teacher helps the students in understanding by providing organization and relevance. Eliciting performance: The teacher asks the learners to respond, demonstrating learning. Providing feedback: The teacher gives informative feedback on the learners' performance. Assessing performance: The teacher requires more learner performance, and gives feedback, to reinforce learning. Enhancing retention and transfer: The teacher provides varied practice to generalize the capability.
Schema Theory	A system of organizing and perceiving new information. This learning theory views organized knowledge as an elaborate network of abstract mental structures which represent one's understanding of the world. (International, 1998)
Cognitive Load Theory	This theory expresses that during complex learning activities the amounts of information and interactions that must be processed concurrently can either under-load or overload the limited amount of working memory one possesses. 
Constructivism	Constructivism is a theory of learning and an approach to education that puts highlight on the ways that people create meaning of the world through a series of individual concepts. 

 as b

Chapters in this section present two contrasting epistemic stances: positivist and relativist. However, a third stance, the contextualist or hermeneutical, is also widely recognized. This stance falls somewhere between the strictly objectivist/positivist beliefs about knowing and the purely subjectivist/relativist stance. While designers and educators with a positivist stance generally apply behaviorist principles to the design and development of instruction, those with either a contextualist or relativist epistemological framework employ constructivist theories and methods. However, relativists ascribe to radical constructivist approaches, while contextualists draw upon social constructivist theories and models. Based on what you’ve read about positivist and relativist epistemologies, as well as behaviorist and constructivist approaches, try to more fully describe a contextualist epistemology. How might it differ from either a relativist or positivist stance, and how might social constructivism differ from either behaviorist or radical constructivist approached to learning and instruction?

Contextualism is a way of explaining an event that, with respect to a single epistemic situation, we sometimes are and sometimes are not willing to ascribe knowledge to the epistemic subject.

Epistemic:  of or pertaining to knowledge or the conditions for acquiring it.

DeRose provides the following example:

Bank Case A. My wife and I are driving home on a Friday afternoon. We plan to stop at the bank on the way home to deposit our paychecks. But as we drive past the bank, we notice that the lines inside are very long, as they are often on Friday afternoons. Although we generally like to deposit our paychecks as soon as possible, it is not especially important in this case that they be deposited right away, so I suggest that we drive straight home and deposit our paychecks on Saturday morning. My wife says, “Maybe the bank won’t be open tomorrow. Lots of banks are closed on Saturdays.” I reply, “No, I know it’ll be open. I was just there two weeks ago on Saturday. It’s open until noon.” 

Bank Case B. My wife and I drive past the bank on a Friday afternoon, as in Case A, and notice the long lines. I again suggest that we deposit our paychecks on Saturday morning, explaining that I was at the bank on Saturday morning only two weeks ago and discovered that it was open until noon. But in this case, we have just written a very large and very important check. If our paychecks are not deposited into our checking account before Monday morning, the important check we wrote will bounce, leaving us in a very bad situation.  And, of course, the bank is not open on Sunday.  My wife reminds me of these facts.  She then says, “Banks do change their hours. Do you know the bank will be open tomorrow?” Remaining as confident as I was before that the bank will be open then, still, I reply, “Well, no. I’d better go in and make sure.” 

Assume that in both cases the bank will be open on Saturday and that there is nothing unusual about either case that has not been included in my description.  It seems to me that (1) when I claim to know that the bank will be open on  Saturday in case A, I am saying something true. But it also seems that (2) I am saying something true in case B when I concede that I don’t know that the bank will be open on Saturday. (DeRose 1992, p. 913–14)   

With respect to the same epistemic situation, DeRose claims, “S knows that p” may be true in one context of utterance and false in another. To resolve the apparent conflict, contextualists propose the semantic thesis that knowledge ascriptions are context-sensitive.  (Freitag, 2011)

Truth in contextualism is only true according to the environment of the situation.   In the classroom setting of the contextualist, learning is not controlled and predicted as compared to the positivist view.  Rather it aims to create an environment in which understanding and conversation with the past and each other can be pursued.  As the substance of our experience, beliefs, and practices are mediated through culture and language, hermeneutics teaches us to open ourselves to other perspectives in order to learn from them and test/revise our own assumptions (Richardson, 2002).  (Wiley, 2009)   Positivists believe knowledge is acquired through actual experience.  On the education design aspect, knowledge is transferred to the learner from the outside to the inside.  The teacher determines the goals for the lesson.  The lessons are teacher centered, objectives are defined and assessments are designed by the teacher.  Whereas in contextualisum the student determines knowledge and collaborate with others to obtain knowledge.

Differing epistemic stances lead to differing approaches to learning and instruction, and ultimately to problem-solving.  Explain differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives.  How do the approaches differ in both the nature of the problem to be solved and in facilitating the problem solving process?  Finally, what effect might these differences have on learner motivation? 

The theories of Constructivism are founded on the belief that “the child, at first directly assimilating the external environment to his own activity, later, in order to extend this assimilation, forms an increasing number of schemata which are both more mobile and better able to inter-coordinate” (Piaget, 1955).   Led by Piaget’s theory, Constructivists that currently practice education believe more in learning by doing.   If a child is able to experiment for himself, the learning will be more profound.  Constructivists then focus on a different aspect of education than Behaviorists, as Behaviorists focus more on how students respond to positive and negative reinforcement provided through an educator’s planned system of data presentation rather than on letting students be presented with stimuli and seeing how students learn on their own. (Ebert) 

In the Constructist classroom the focus is learner centered and the teacher is the facilitator.  To solve problems, student work together, independently or with a partner.  In the behaviorist classroom problem-solving is evaluated be the teacher.  Students work independently and the correct answer is the goal.

(1950s?) Old-School Classroom	Constructivist Classroom
Teacher directed (didactic dissemination of information)	Learner-centered. Teacher as facilitator – students construct knowledge through critical thinking, manipulatives, primary resources, and hands-on activities.
Student works independently.	Student works collaboratively in groups, independently or in partners.
Small parts first. Big idea at the end.	Big idea first. All parts support big idea.
Correct answers are the goal.	Thinking and support of thinking are the goals.
Assessments are tests; separate from learning task.	Assessments are observation, conferences, daily work, portfolios and included in learning tasks.
Worksheets, workbooks, basal readers.	Books, journals, real-world situations, workshop approach.
Teacher evaluator.	Self-reflection, student evaluator and teacher evaluator.
Product based learning: All students will learn on demand the same thing at the same time aka. One-size-fits-all approach.	Process based learning: Learners create meaning and context by exploring new ideas and experiences, generating hypotheses, problem solving.
Teacher talks to (at) students; students expected to listen and absorb knowledge.	Teacher-student dialogue through conferring, questioning, and wondering.
Teacher makes all the decisions.	Shared responsibility and decision making.
Students answer questions. Empowered teacher.	Students ask questions. Empowered learner.
Individual learners.	Community of learners.

Link

Ebert, A. K. (n.d.). Theories of Educational Technology. Retrieved November 08, 2012, from Boeise State Ed Tech Opportunity Realzed: https://sites.google.com/a/boisestate.edu/edtechtheories/Home

Freitag, W. (2011). Spistemic Contextualism & Knowability Problem. Academic Search Complete , 273-284.

International, S. (1998, July 02). Schema Theory Learning. Retrieved Noember 08, 2012, from Schema Theory Learning: This learning theory views organized knowledge as an elaborate network of abstract mental structures which represent one's understanding of the world.

Online, D. (n.d.). Dictionary Online. Retrieved from Dictionary Online: http://dictionary.reference.com/

Wiley, B. S. (2009). Psychologism and Instructional Technology. Academic Research Complete , 26.